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Agriculture is the practice of cultivating plants and livestock. The history of agriculture began thousands of years ago. After gathering wild grains beginning at leastyears ago, nascent farmers began to plant them around 11, years ago. Pigs, sheep, and cattle were domesticated over 10, years ago.
Plants were independently cultivated in dissertation consulting service général least 11 regions of the world. Industrial agriculture based on large-scale monoculture in the twentieth century came to dominate agricultural output, dissertation consulting service général, though about 2 billion people still depended on subsistence agriculture.
The major agricultural products can be broadly grouped into foodsfibersfuels and raw materials such as rubber. Food classes include cereals grainsvegetablesfruitsoilsmeatdissertation consulting service général, milkeggs and fungi.
Over one-third of the world's workers are employed in agriculture, second only to dissertation consulting service général service sectoralthough in recent decades, the global trend of a decreasing number of agricultural workers continues, especially in developing countries where smallholding is being overtaken by industrial agriculture and mechanization that brings a enormous crop yield increase.
Modern agronomyplant breedingagrochemicals such as pesticides and fertilizersand technological developments have sharply increased crop yields, but causing ecological and environmental damage. Selective breeding and modern practices in animal husbandry have similarly increased the output of meat, but have raised concerns about animal welfare and environmental damage.
Environmental issues include contributions to global warmingdepletion of aquifersdeforestationantibiotic resistanceand growth hormones in industrial meat production. Agriculture is both a cause of and sensitive to environmental degradationsuch as biodiversity lossdesertificationsoil degradation and global warmingall of which can cause decreases in crop yield. Genetically modified organisms are widely used, although some are banned in certain countries.
The word agriculture is a late Middle English adaptation of Latin agricultūrafrom ager 'field' and cultūra ' cultivation ' or 'growing'. The development of agriculture enabled the human population to grow many times larger than could be sustained by hunting and gathering.
Rice was domesticated in China between 11, dissertation consulting service général, and 6, BC with the earliest known cultivation from 5, BC, [12] followed by mungsoy and azuki beans. Sheep were domesticated in Mesopotamia between 13, and 11, years ago. Sugarcane and some root vegetables were domesticated in New Guinea around 9, years ago. Sorghum was domesticated in the Sahel region of Africa by 7, years ago. Cotton was domesticated in Peru by 5, years ago, [17] and was independently domesticated in Eurasia.
In Mesoamericawild teosinte was bred into maize by 6, years ago. Studies of the transition from hunter-gatherer to dissertation consulting service général societies indicate an initial period of intensification and increasing sedentism ; examples are the Natufian culture in the Levantand the Early Chinese Neolithic in China. Then, dissertation consulting service général, wild stands that had previously been harvested started to be planted, and gradually came to be domesticated.
In Eurasia, dissertation consulting service général, the Sumerians started to live in villages from about dissertation consulting service général, BC, relying on the Tigris and Euphrates rivers and a canal system for irrigation. Ploughs appear in pictographs around 3, BC; seed-ploughs around 2, BC. Farmers dissertation consulting service général wheat, barley, vegetables such as lentils and onions, dissertation consulting service général, and fruits dissertation consulting service général dates, grapes, and figs.
Farming started in the predynastic period at the end of the Paleolithicafter 10, BC. Staple food crops were grains such as wheat and barley, alongside industrial crops such as flax and papyrus. In China, from the 5th century BC there was a nationwide granary system and widespread silk farming. Sheep and goats were kept mainly for dairy products.
In the Americas, crops domesticated in Mesoamerica apart from teosinte include squash, beans, and cacao. The Mayas used extensive canal and raised field systems to farm swampland from BC. The natives controlled fire on a regional scale to create a low-intensity fire ecology that sustained a low-density agriculture in loose rotation; a sort of "wild" permaculture. The three crops were winter squashmaize, and climbing beans. Indigenous Australiansdissertation consulting service général, long supposed to have been nomadic hunter-gathererspractised systematic burning, possibly to enhance natural productivity in fire-stick farming.
In the Middle Ages, both in Europe and in the Islamic worldagriculture transformed with improved techniques dissertation consulting service général the diffusion of crop plants, including the introduction of sugar, rice, cotton and fruit trees such as the orange to Europe by way of Al-Andalus.
After the Columbian exchange brought New World crops such as maize, dissertation consulting service général, potatoes, tomatoes, sweet potatoes and manioc to Europe, and Old World crops such as wheat, barley, rice and turnipsand livestock including horses, cattle, sheep and goats to the Americas.
Irrigationcrop rotationand fertilizers advanced from the 17th century with the British Agricultural Revolutionallowing global population to rise significantly. Since agriculture in developed nations, and to a lesser extent in the developing world, has seen large rises in productivity as mechanization replaces human labor, and assisted by synthetic fertilizerspesticides, and selective breeding.
The Haber-Bosch method allowed the synthesis of ammonium nitrate fertilizer on an industrial scale, greatly increasing crop yields and sustaining a further increase in global population. Pastoralism involves managing domesticated animals. In nomadic pastoralismherds of livestock are moved from place to place in search of pasture, fodder, and water.
This type of farming is practised in arid and semi-arid regions of SaharaCentral Asia and some parts of India. In shifting cultivationa small area of forest is cleared by cutting and burning the trees.
The cleared land is used for growing crops for a few years until the soil becomes too infertile, and the area is abandoned. Another patch of land is selected and the process is repeated. This type of farming is practiced mainly in areas with abundant rainfall where the forest regenerates quickly.
This practice is used in Northeast India, dissertation consulting service général, Southeast Asia, and the Amazon Basin. Subsistence farming is practiced to satisfy family or local needs alone, with little left over for transport elsewhere. It is intensively practiced in Monsoon Asia and South-East Asia. Intensive farming is cultivation to maximise productivity, with a low fallow ratio and a high use of inputs water, fertilizer, pesticide and automation.
It is practiced mainly in developed countries. From the twentieth century, intensive agriculture increased productivity. It substituted synthetic fertilizers and pesticides for labour, but caused increased water pollution, and often involved farm subsidies.
In recent years there has been a backlash against the environmental effects of conventional agriculture, resulting in the organicregenerativeand sustainable agriculture movements. The growth of organic farming has renewed research in alternative technologies such as integrated pest managementselective breeding, [82] and controlled-environment agriculture. Agriculture, specifically farming, remains a hazardous industry, and farmers worldwide remain at high risk of work-related injuries, lung disease, noise-induced hearing lossskin diseases, as well as certain cancers related to chemical use and prolonged sun exposure.
On industrialized farmsinjuries frequently involve the use of agricultural machineryand a common cause of fatal agricultural injuries in developed countries is tractor rollovers. The International Labour Organization considers agriculture "one of the most hazardous of all economic sectors".
In addition, incidences of death, injury and illness related to agricultural activities often go unreported. In the United States, agriculture has been identified by the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health as a priority industry sector in the National Occupational Research Agenda to identify and provide intervention strategies for occupational health and safety issues.
The twenty largest countries by agricultural output in nominal terms at peak level as ofaccording to the IMF and Dissertation consulting service général World Factbook.
Cropping systems vary among farms depending on the available resources and constraints; geography and climate of the farm; government policy; economic, social and political pressures; and the philosophy and culture of the farmer. Shifting cultivation or slash and burn is a system in which forests are burnt, releasing nutrients to support cultivation of annual and then perennial crops for a period of several years. This fallow period is shortened if population density grows, requiring the input of nutrients fertilizer or manure and some manual pest control.
Annual cultivation is the next phase of intensity in which there is no fallow period. This requires even greater nutrient and pest control inputs. Further industrialization led to the use of monocultureswhen one dissertation consulting service général is planted on a large acreage. Because of the low biodiversitynutrient use is uniform and pests tend to build up, necessitating the greater use of pesticides and fertilizers.
In subtropical dissertation consulting service général arid environments, the timing and extent of agriculture may be limited by rainfall, either not allowing multiple annual crops in a year, or requiring irrigation. In all of these environments perennial crops are grown coffeechocolate and systems are practiced such as agroforestry. In temperate environments, where ecosystems were predominantly grassland or prairiehighly productive annual farming is the dominant agricultural system.
Important categories of food crops include cereals, legumes, forage, fruits and vegetables, dissertation consulting service général. Production is listed in millions of metric tons, based on FAO estimates. Animal husbandry is the breeding and raising of animals for meat, milk, dissertation consulting service général, eggsor wooland for work and transport. Livestock production systems can be defined based on feed source, as grassland-based, mixed, and landless.
Between the s and the s, dissertation consulting service général, there was a significant increase in livestock production, both by numbers and by carcass weight, especially among beef, pigs and chickens, the latter of which had production increased by almost a factor of Non-meat animals, such as milk cows and dissertation consulting service général chickens, also showed significant production increases.
Global cattle, sheep and goat populations are expected to continue to increase sharply through During the second half of the 20th century, producers using selective breeding focused on creating livestock breeds and crossbreeds that increased production, while mostly disregarding the need to preserve genetic diversity. This trend has led to a significant decrease in genetic diversity and resources among livestock breeds, leading to a corresponding decrease in disease resistance and local adaptations previously found among traditional breeds.
Grassland based livestock production relies upon plant material such as shrublandrangelandand pastures for feeding ruminant animals. Outside nutrient inputs may be used, however manure is returned directly to dissertation consulting service général grassland as a major nutrient source. This system is particularly important in areas where crop production is not feasible because of climate or soil, representing 30—40 million pastoralists.
Manure is typically recycled in mixed systems as a fertilizer for crops. Landless systems rely upon feed from outside the farm, representing the de-linking of crop and livestock production found more prevalently in Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development member countries. Synthetic fertilizers are more heavily relied upon for crop production and manure use becomes a challenge as well as a source for pollution.
Much of this growth is happening in developing countries in Asia, with much smaller amounts of growth in Africa. Tillage is the practice of breaking up the soil with tools such as the plow or harrow to prepare for planting, for nutrient incorporation, or for pest control. Tillage varies in intensity dissertation consulting service général conventional to no-till.
It may improve productivity by warming the soil, incorporating fertilizer and controlling weeds, but also renders soil more prone to erosion, triggers the decomposition of organic matter releasing Dissertation consulting service général 2and reduces the abundance and diversity of soil organisms.
Pest control includes the management of weeds, insects, mites dissertation consulting service général, and diseases. Chemical pesticidesbiological biocontrolmechanical tillageand cultural practices are used. Cultural practices include crop rotation, dissertation consulting service général, cullingcover cropsintercropping, compostingavoidance, and resistance. Integrated pest management attempts to use all of these methods to keep pest populations below the number which would cause economic loss, and recommends pesticides as a last resort.
Nutrient management includes both the source of nutrient inputs for crop and livestock production, and the method of use of manure produced by livestock. Nutrient inputs can be chemical inorganic fertilizers, manure, green manurecompost and minerals. Manure is used either by holding livestock where the feed crop is growing, such as in managed intensive rotational grazing, or by dissertation consulting service général either dry or liquid formulations of manure on cropland or pastures.
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Derniers chiffres du Coronavirus issus du CSSE 25/11/ (jeudi 25 novembre ). Au niveau mondial le nombre total de cas est de , le nombre de guérisons est de 0, le nombre de décès est de 5 Le taux de mortalité est de 1,99%, le taux de guérison est de 0,00% et le taux de personnes encore malade est de 98,01% Pour consulter le détail d'un pays, cliquez sur l'un d Agriculture is the practice of cultivating plants and livestock. Agriculture was the key development in the rise of sedentary human civilization, whereby farming of domesticated species created food surpluses that enabled people to live in cities. The history of agriculture began thousands of years ago. After gathering wild grains beginning at least , years ago, nascent farmers began to * - Main goods are marked with red color. Services of language translation the An announcement must be commercial character Goods and services advancement through blogger.com sys
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